Apostle of Marcion

Apostolos Marcionis

Standard abbreviation: Ap. Marcion

Other titles: Apostolikon, Apostolus

Clavis numbers: ECCA 326; tlg2958.tlg003

Category: Epistles

Compiled by Mark G. Bilby (Principal, Clavis Consulting, LLC, Kansas) and Markus Vinzent (University of Erfurt)

Citing this resource (using Chicago Manual of Style): Bilby, Mark G. and Markus Vinzent. “Apostle of Marcion.” e-Clavis: Christian Apocrypha. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR. https://www.nasscal.com/e-clavis-christian-apocrypha/apostle-of-marcion/.

Created December 2025.

1. SUMMARY

Like its Gospel companion in Marcion’s early yet comparatively brief New Testament, Marcion’s Apostle does not evidently survive intact in any known manuscript. Many of its distinctive readings do, however, correspond to variants found within Greek manuscripts, particularly the Greek-Latin diglots F010, G012, and D06, their various descendants, as well as variants in Old Latin and Old Syriac manuscripts.

Akin to Marcion’s Gospel, scholarly efforts to reconstruct his Apostle begin with the attestations by Marcion’s heresiologist detractors, most especially Tertullian in his Against Marcion (early 3rd cent.), Epiphanius in the Panarion (late 4th cent.), and the Ps-Origen Adamantius Dialogue (late 4th cent.). Unlike his section on Marcion’s Gospel, Epiphanius’s discussion of the Apostle only notes specific variants, rather than elaborating a thorough list of absent canonical passages. Additional attestations may be found in the authentic writings of Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Hippolytus of Rome, Jerome of Stridon, and others, as well as in writings attributed pseudonymously to Tertullian, Ephrem, and others.

The canonical Paulines supply the book names, as well as the chapter and verse numbers typically used as divisions within this letter collection, facilitating comparison between the two (note: see below for Ephesians/Laodiceans). In recent scholarly literature and in what follows, an asterisk preceding the book name distinguishes Marcionite text(s) from the canonical New Testament counterpart(s).

The one major exception to shared letter names is that Ephesians in the canonical version is known as Laodiceans in Marcion’s collection. Neither canonical Ephesians nor Marcionite Laodiceans should be confused with the apocryphal Epistle to the Laodiceans. According to the recent reconstruction of Marcion’s Apostolos by Vinzent, Bilby, et al, the apocryphal Letter to the Laodiceans, despite its many sequential overlaps with canonical Philippians, lacks any such parallels to Marcionite Philippians, suggesting that canonical Philippians is an amalgamation of Marcionite Philippians and the apocryphal Epistle to the Laodiceans.

The Galatians-first order of the Marcionite Paulines corresponds not only to the testimony and order of attestations given by Tertullian and Epiphanius, but also to the order found in the Sinaitic Canon, Ephrem’s commentary on the Pauline letters, and the so-called Marcionite Prologues. After Galatians follows 1–2 Corinthians, then Romans, 1–2 Thessalonians, Laodiceans, Colossians, Philippians, and finally, Philemon.

According to the calculations in the recent TANZ critical reconstruction, Marcionite *Galatians is roughly a third of the size of its canonical counterpart, yet roughly the same size as 2 Corinthians, Romans, and Laodiceans in the Marcionite collection. *Galatians establishes a biographical opening to the collection according to which Paul is directly commissioned by Christ as apostle of an “evangelion” conveyed through an “apocalypse”. This happens completely apart from any coordination with Peter, James, and John—three leaders mentioned, but only visited by Paul a single time in Jerusalem after Paul had spent fourteen years in an apparently nondescript location (*Gal 1–2), rather than Arabia, as in the canonical text. *Galatians only mentions Titus, and not Barnabas, as a companion of Paul, and apparently set the confrontation of Paul with Peter in Jerusalem, not in Antioch, as in the canonical version. Paul then describes the crucifixion of Christ as a curse which became ransom, blessing, and sonship for those “of the faith” (*Gal 3). Next he explores the theme of sonship and adoption as deliverance from “elementals” and time-bound observances, before elaborating an allegory on two testaments as two mothers, wherein Mount Sinai is a “maidservant,” but a clearly feminine “sacred assembly” is a “freewoman” who “birthed” over all cosmic powers (*Gal 4:24–25). In the canonical redaction, this allegory has a drastically different framing and the hymnic climax shifts location to canonical Ephesians (1:21).

*1 Corinthians is the longest letter in the Marcionite collection, making up over 30% of its total content, but still only about 30% of the size of its canonical counterpart text. It begins as a philosophical discourse about the revelation of a “mystery” centered in, and defined by, the cross of Christ, a wisdom that transcends time and cosmic hierarchy, and is made known to the “ignoble” through Paul’s preaching (*1 Cor 1–2). This wisdom forms and dwells within a sacred community, a human temple of the divine spirit (*1 Cor 3–4). The letter’s instructional (or paraenetic) section focuses first on sexual ethics, beginning with a rebuke of an incestuous relationship (*1 Cor 5), forbidding participation in illicit relationships (*1 Cor 6), and even showing a decided preference for ascetic abstinence, both apart from marriage and even within marriage (*1 Cor 7). The ethical discourse turns then to food, allowing the consumption of food sacrificed to idols and marketplace food more generally, subordinating food consumption to the well-being of other community members, insisting that preachers of the evangelion have the right to sustenance from the community, despite Paul himself not exercising that right (*1 Cor 8–10). The discourse then turns to clothing, forbidding men from covering their heads in prayer and insisting that women do cover their heads, then narrating a short ritual of cup and bread commemorating the night on which Jesus was betrayed to his death (*1 Cor 11). Next the focus turns to spiritual gifts, allowing for speaking in tongues in private, but subordinating that gift to prophesying and teaching in the congregation as the work of apostles and prophets, both male and female, to orderly worship, and most of all to the all surpassing gift of love (*1 Cor 12–14). The letter concludes with a lengthy, involved, and often poetic discourse on the death and resurrection of Christ as a pivotal moment in salvation history, focusing especially on the differences between material bodies and the resurrection body of, and shared through, Jesus (*1 Cor 15).

*2 Corinthians in the Marcionite Apostolos is less than 20% of the size of its canonical counterpart, entirely lacking the repeated and extended material on the sufferings of Paul and appeals for fundraising in support of an offering brought by Paul and associates to Jerusalem. After briefly establishing Paul’s lack of concern for financial gain (*2 Cor 2), the focus instead is on the new testament brought about by Christ and its differences with the old/Mosaic testament (*2 Cor 3). It then describes the paradox of carrying divine treasure in mortal, earthen vessels (*2 Cor 4), which is tantamount to the divine spirit inhabiting corruptible human bodies before swallowing them down in a spiritual body (*2 Cor 5). After a brief injunction to avoid pollution (*2 Cor 7:1) and become a “chaste virgin” for Christ (*2 Cor 11:2), and denouncing false-apostles (*2 Cor 11:13–14), Paul narrates a brief, personal apocalypse, accompanied by mention of a bodily affliction (*2 Cor 12), then concluding with an ethical warning tied to his return (*2 Cor 13).

*Romans is only about 1/8 the size of its canonical counterpart, notably lacking most, if not all of the discourse on Abraham in Rom 4, most of the discourse on Israel and the gentiles in Rom 9–11, as well as various lists (catenae) of proof-texts from the Septuagint. Its topics are also far simpler and briefer: on divine judgment in a general sense (*Rom 1–2); on Judean identity and circumcision being a hidden, inner identity, not an external one (*Rom 3); on law—though “sacred” and “good”—being a temporary arrangement that results only in death, contrasted with the ultimate salvation and spiritual resurrection revealed through Christ via faith (*Rom 5–8). Even if Israel does not recognize it, Christ is the fulfillment of law and ultimate revelation of divine wisdom (*Rom 11). The conclusion issues a litany of instructions on food, speech-ethics, and the ultimacy of the command to love (*Rom 12–14).

*1 Thessalonians may have only been about 1/10 of the size of its canonical counterpart. Near the opening one finds the accusation that “the Judeans” had “killed the Lord Jesus and their own prophets” (*1 Thess 2:14–15a), though without the more notorious parts (1 Thess 2:15b–16) that are only found in the canonical version. After briefly mentioning Paul’s stay in Athens (*1 Thess 3), the subject turns to the coming of the Christ and the resurrection of the dead (*1 Thess 4), and closes with a short litany of ethical instructions and a blessing (*1 Thess 5).

*2 Thessalonians may have been about 1/5 the size of its canonical counterpart. It vividly describes future judgment by Christ as relief for the afflicted and as punishment for the wicked, the latter led by the “human of sin . . . who exalts over everything called god” (*2 Thess 1–2). It closes with a requirement to work in order to eat (*2 Thess 3:10).

Marcionite *Laodiceans was a little more than a third of the size of its canonical counterpart, but roughly equivalent in size to *Gal, *2Cor, and *Rom, though employing a distinct style and much longer sentences than the other, longer letters in the Marcionite collection. Many of the themes echo those previously noted, though in a more lofty register when describing adoption, salvation as ransoming, wisdom as spiritual enlightenment, etc. New (or canonical-only) themes appear, such as cosmic reconciliation, ethnic unification, and community members as “saints.” The “foundation” of faith is no longer Christ, but the “apostles” as a group, and Christ becomes the “high-cornerstone” of this building. A short creed makes a debut (Laod 4), as does a set of house-rules, and an elaboration of spiritual armor and prayer as the mode of peace-time warfare (*Laod 5–6).

*Colossians is similar to *Laodiceans in many ways, though perhaps less than a third of its size, and less than 1/5 the size of canonical Colossians. Familiar themes are repeated, though like *Laodiceans, the focus is on reconciliation of hostile parties, peace-making, and longer sentences are more common.

*Philippians, like *1 Thess, *2 Thess, and *Col, is quite short, perhaps only about 1/8 of the size of its canonical counterpart. It focuses on Paul’s purer motives for preaching the evangelion compared to his rivals, though celebrating the shared success of the message (*Phil 1). It also contains the so-called kenosis hymn (*Phil 2), but perhaps in a briefer form that ends with the crucifixion, not exaltation and cosmic submission. A bit more of Pauline autobiography appears in regard to his Hebrew and Benjaminite lineage and affiliation as a “Pharisee” (*Phil 3), before apparently concluding with a hopeful salvo of future heavenly redemption and bodily transformation.

*Philemon is very likely the shortest letter in the Marcionite collection, as in the canonical Paulines. The Marcionite version may have been around 1/4 the size as its canonical counterpart. The main characters are still evident, including Onesimus and Philemon, the former not being a slave, but a servant, while Philemon is no slave-holder, as in the canonical version. An appeal for reconciliation of these two parties is evident.

Named historical figures and characters: Abraham (patriarch), Adam, Elijah (prophet), James (the Righteous), John (son of Zebedee), Moses (patriarch), Onesimus, Paul (apostle), Peter (apostle), Philemon, Titus (of Crete).

Geographical locations: Achaea, Athens, Colossae, Corinth, Galatia, Israel, Jerusalem, Judea, Laodicea, Macedonia, Philippi, Rome, Sinai, Thessalonica, Troas.

2. RESOURCES

2.1.1 Online Resources: Text Resources

Bilby, Mark G. Marcion_Apostolos Github repository. https://github.com/nauarchus/Marcion_Apostolos (normalized, corrected, and enriched datasets of most major Greek reconstructions in CSV and BibleWorks Greek Morphology txt files, and Patristic Text Archive and Perseus compliant TEI-XML files).

Bilby, Mark G., Jack Bull, and K. Lance Lotharp. “Normalized Datasets of Hahn’s, van Manen’s, and Harnack’s Reconstructions of Marcion’s Apostolos.” Datasets in Harvard Dataverse. V1. DOI: 10.7910/DVN/ZUVKQW. Data paper in Journal of Open Humanities Data 9.21 (2023) 1–5. DOI: doi.org/10.5334/johd.122.

3. BIBLIOGRAPHY

3.1 Manuscripts and Editions

3.1.1 Greek

Harnack, Adolf von. Marcion: Das Evangelium vom fremden Gott. 2d ed. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1924 (pp. 67*–127*).

Schmid, Ulrich. Marcion und sein Apostolos. Rekonstruktion und historische Einordnung der marcionitischen Paulusbriefausgabe. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2012.

van Manen, W. C. “Marcion’s brief van Paulus aan de Galatiërs.” Theologisch Tijdschrift 21 (1887): 382–404, 451–533.

Vinzent, Markus, with Mark G. Bilby, Jack Bull, and K. Lance Lotharp. Die älteste Sammlung paulinischer Briefe und die Entstehung der kanonischen Paulusbriefsammlung. TANZ 72.2–3. In collaboration with Günter Röhser. Edited by Matthias Klinghardt, Günter Röhser, Stefan Schreiber, and Manuel Vogel. 3 vols.Tübingen: Narr Francke, 2025.

Zahn, Theodor. Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons. Vol. 2, Part 2. Erlangen: Andreas Deichert, 1892 (pp. 455–95). ARK: 13960/t8cf9s958

3.2 Modern Translations

3.2.1 English

Bilby, Mark G. Apostolos Reader’s Edition: Greek-English. Edited by Markus Vinzent and Jack Bull. Kansas City, KS: Clavis Consulting, LLC, 2025 (translation of team’s TANZ Greek reconstruction).

Bilby, Mark G. Paul’s Literary Metamorphosis: Translations of Marcion’s Apostolos and Canonical Counterparts. Edited by Jack Bull. Zenodo. 2023. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.8271824 (translation of Vinzent’s solo edition in progress from May 2023).

BeDuhn, Jason D. The First New Testament: Marcion’s Scriptural Canon. Salem, OR: Polebridge, 2013 (pp. 229–59).

3.2.2 German

Vinzent, Markus, with Mark G. Bilby, Jack Bull, and K. Lance Lotharp. Die älteste Sammlung paulinischer Briefe und die Entstehung der kanonischen Paulusbriefsammlung. TANZ 72.1. Edited by Matthias Klinghardt, Günter Röhser, Stefan Schreiber, and Manuel Vogel. Tübingen: Narr Francke, 2025.

Vinzent, Markus, Von Saulus zu Paulus. Zwei Paulusbriefsammlungen im zweiten Jahrhundert. Freiburg i.Br.: Herder, 2025.

3.3 General Works

Aland, Barbara. “Die Rezeption des neutestamentlichen Texts in den ersten Jahrhunderten.” Pages 1–38 in The New Testament in Early Christianity. Edited by Jean-Marie Sevrin. BETL 86. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1989.

Amphoux, Christian-B. “La géographie marcienne et ses corrections ecclésiales.” Pages 81–92 in The New Testament in Antiquity and Byzantium. Traditional and Digital Approaches to its Texts and Editing. A Festschrift for Klaus Wachtel. Edited by Hugh A. G. Houghton, David C. Parker and Holger Strutwolf. ANT 52. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2019.

Arneth, Michael. Ueber die Bekanntschaft Marcions mit unserem Canon des neuen Bundes, und insbesondere uber das Evangelium desselben. Linz: C. Haslinger, 1809.

Bardy, Gustav. “Marcionites (Prologues).” Dictionnaire de la Bible Supplementaire 5 (1957): cols. 877–881.

Barton, John. “Marcion Revisited.” Pages 341–54 in The Canon Debate. Edited by Lee Martin McDonald and James A. Sanders. Peabody: Hendrickson, 2002.

Baur, Ferdinand Christian. Paulus, der Apostel Jesu Christi. Sein Leben und Wirken, seine Briefe und seine Lehre; ein Beitrag zu einer kritischen Geschichte des Urchristenthums. Stuttgart, 1845.

Becker, Eve-Marie. “Marcion und die Korintherbriefe nach Tertullian, Adversus Marcionem V.” Pages 95–109 in Marcion und seine kirchengeschichtliche Wirkung. Edited by Gerhard May and Katherina Greschat. Berlin, New York: 2002.

BeDuhn, Jason D. The First New Testament: Marcion’s Scriptural Canon. Salem, OR: Polebridge, 2013 (pp. 203–361).

Beeson, Charles H., ed. Hegemonius: Acta Archelai. Leipzig: J.C. Hinrichs, 1906.

Betz, Hans D. “Paul in the Mani Biography (Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis).” Pages 213–34 in Codex Manichaeus Coloniensis. Atti del Simposio Internazionale, 3–7 Settembre 1984. Edited by Luigi Cirillo and Amneris Roselli. Cosenza, 1986.

Blackman, Edwin Cyril. Marcion and his Influence. London: S.P.C.K., 1948.

Clabeaux, John J. A Lost Edition of the Letters of Paul. A Reassessment of the Text of the Pauline Corpus attested by Marcion. Washington, DC: Catholic Biblical Association of America, 1989.

Corssen, Peter. Epistularum Paulinarum codices Graece et Latine scriptos Augiensem Boernerianum Claromontanum… Vol. 1. Kiel: Henricus Flencke, 1887.

__________. Epistularum Paulinarum codices Graece et Latine scriptos Augiensem Boernerianum Claromontanum… Vol. 2. Kiel: Henricus Flencke, 1889.

Couchoud, Paul Louis. “La première édition de Saint Paul.” Revue de l’histoire des religions 94 (1926): 242–63.

Dahl, Nils A. “The Origins of the Earliest Prologues to the Pauline Letters.” Pages 233–77 in The Poetics of Faith. Edited by F. S. Amos Wilder and W. A. Beardslee. Missoula: Scholars Press, 1978.

__________. “0230 (= PSI 1306) and the Fourth-Century Greek-Latin Edition of the Letters of Paul.” Pages 79–98 in Text and Interpretation. Studies in the New Testament Presented to Matthew Black. Edited by Ernest Best and R. McL. Wilson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1979.

de Bruyne, Donatien. “Prologues Bibliques d’Origine Marcionite.” Revue Bénédictine 24 (1907): 1–16.

Detering, Hermann. The Falsified Paul. Early Christianity in the Twilight. Madison, NJ: Institute for Higher Critical Studies, 2003.

Fewster, Gregory. “Archiving Paul. Manuscripts, Religion, and the Editorial Shaping of Ancient Letter Collections.” Archivaria 81 (2016): 101–28.

__________. “Authors and Their Caretakers: Evaluating the Editor in Roman Antiquarian Discourse and Tertullian’s Heresiological Refutation of Marcion.” Early Christianity 16 (2025): 42–64. DOI: 10.1628/ec-2025-0005

Finegan, Jack. “The Original Form of the Pauline Collection.” HTR 49.2 (1956): 85–103.

Frede, Hermann Josef. Altlateinische Paulus-Handschriften. Freiburg: Herder, 1964.

Gamble, Harry Y. The New Testament Canon. Its Making and Meaning. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1992.

__________. “The New Testament Canon: Recent Research and the Status Quaestionis.” Pages 267–94 in The Canon Debate. Edited by Lee Martin McDonald and James A. Sanders. Peabody: Hendrickson, 2001.

__________. “Redaction of the Pauline Letters and the Formation of the Pauline Corpus.” JBL 93 (1975): 403–418.

Harnack, Adolf von. Die Briefsammlung des Apostels Paulus und die anderen vorkonstantinischen christlichen Briefsammlungen. Sechs Vorlesungen aus der altkirchlichen Literaturgeschichte. Leipzig: 1926.

__________. Marcion: Das Evangelium vom fremden Gott. 2d ed. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1924.

Hatch, W. H. P. “On the Relationship of Codex Augiensis and Codex Boernerianus of the Pauline Epistles.” Harvard Studies in Classical Philology 60 (1951): 187–99.

Hilgenfeld, Adolf. “Das Apostolikon Marcion’s.” Zeitschrift für die historische Theologie 25 (1855): 426–84.

Hoffmann, R. Joseph. Marcion: On the Restitution of Christianity, An Essay on the Development of Radical Paulinist Theology in the Second Century. AAR Academy Series 46. Chico: Scholars, 1984.

Kinzig, Wolfram. “Καινὴ Διαϑήκη. The Title of the New Testament in the Second and Third Centuries.” JTS 45.2 (1994): 519–44.

Klinghardt, Matthias. “Abraham als Element der Kanonischen Redaktion.” Pages 223–58 in Das Neue Testament und sein Text im 2. Jahrhundert. Edited by J. Heilmann and M. Klinghardt. Tübingen: 2018.

Knox, John. “Acts and the Pauline Letter Corpus.” Pages 279–87 in Studies in Luke-Acts. Edited by Leander E. Keck and J. Louis Martyn. Philadelphia: 1966.

__________. Marcion and the New Testament: An Essay in the Early History of the Canon. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1942.

Lang, T. J. “Did Tertullian Read Marcion in Latin? Grammatical Evidence from the Greek of Ephesians 3:9 in Marcion’s Apostolikon as Presented in the Latin of Tertullian’s Adversus Marcionem.” ZAC 21.1 (2017): 63–72.

Lieu, Judith M. Marcion and the Making of a Heretic: God and Scripture in the Second Century. New York, 2015.

Litwa, M. David. Marcion: The Gospel of a Wholly Good God. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2025.

Livesay, Nina. The Letters of Paul in their Roman Literary Context: Reassessing Pauline Authorship. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2024.

Loeffler, Josias F.C. “Marcionem Paulii epistolas et Lucae evangelium adulterasse dubitatur.” ComTh 1 (1794): 180–218.

Maier, Harry O. “Marcion the Circumsizer.” Studia Patristica 99 (2018): 98–108.

Mathur, J. P. and Markus Vinzent. “Pre-canonical Paul. His Views Towards Sexual Immorality.” Studia Patristica 99 (2018): 157–75.

Meyboom, H. U. Marcion en de Marcionieten. Leiden, 1888.

Mills, Ian N. “Marcion as Textual Critic? Heresiological Rhetoric and the Conventions of Roman Scholarship.” JECS 33.1 (2025): 27–53.

Moll, Sebastian. The Arch-Heretic Marcion. WUNT 250. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010.

Molitor, Joseph. Der Paulustext des hl. Ephräm aus seinem Armenisch erhaltenen Paulinenkommentar. Rome: Päpstliches Bibelinstitut, 1938.

Mowry, L. “The early circulation of Paul’s letters.” JBL 63 (1944): 73–86.

Nongbri, Brent. “2 Corinthians and possible material evidence for composite letters in antiquity.” Pages 54–67 in Collecting Early Christian Letters from the Apostle Paul to Late Antiquity. Edited by B. Neil and P. Allen. Cambridge: 2015.

__________. “Pauline Letter Manuscripts.” Pages 84–103 in All Things to All Cultures: Paul among Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Edited by M. Harding and A. Nobbs. Grand Rapids, 2013.

Norelli, Enrico. “Marcione lettore dell’ epistola ai Romani.” Cristianesimo nella storia 15 (1994): 635–75.

__________. “Markion und der biblische Kanon.” Pages 1–28 in Markion und der biblische Kanon – Christian Literature and Christian History. Edited by Enrico Norelli and Averil Cameron. Berlin, Boston, 2016.

Ory, Georges. Marcion. Cahier hors-série. Paris: Cercle Ernest-Renan, 1980.

Pervo, Richard I. Dating Acts. Between the Evangelists and the Apologists. Santa Rosa, CA: 2006.

Porter, Stanley E. “Paul and the Pauline Collection.” Pages 19–36 in Paul and the Second Century. Edited by M. F. Bird and J. R. Dodson. London, 2011.

__________. “Paul and the Process of Canonization.” Pages 173–202 in Exploring the Origins of the Bible: Canon Formation in Historical, Literary, and Theological Perspective. Edited by C. A. Evans and E. Tov. Grand Rapids: 2008.

__________. “When and How Was the Pauline Canon Compiled? An Assessment of Theories.” Pages 95–127 in The Pauline Canon. Edited by Stanley E. Porter. Leiden: Springer, 2004.

Preuschen, Ernst. “Eine altkirchliche antimarcionitische Schrift unter dem Namen Ephräms.” ZNW 12.2–3 (1911): 243–69.

Quispel, Gilles. “Marcion and the Text of the New Testament.” VC 52 (1998): 349–60.

Regul, Jürgen. Die antimarcionitischen Evangelienprologe. Freiburg: Herder, 1969.

Richards, E. Randolph. Paul and First-Century Letter Writing: Secretaries, Composition, and Collection. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2004.

Rothschild, Claire K. Hebrews as Pseudepigraphon. The History and Significance of the Pauline Attribution of Hebrews. WUNT 235. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2009.

Ryder, W. H. “The Authorship of Romans XV, XVI.” JBL 17 (1898): 184–98.

Schaefer, Karl Theodor. “Der griechisch-lateinische Text des Galaterbriefes in der Handschriftengruppe D E F G.” Pages 41–70 in Scientia sacra. Theologische Festgabe zugeeignet Seiner Eminenz dem hochwürdigsten Herrn Karl Joseph Kardinal Schulte, Erzbischof von Köln, zum fünfundzwanzigsten Jahrestage der Bischofsweihe 19. März 1935. Cologne: 1935.

__________. Die Überlieferung des altlateinischen Galaterbriefes. Tomus 1. Braunsberg: 1939.

Schmid, Ulrich. Marcion und sein Apostolos. Rekonstruktion und historische Einordnung der marcionitischen Paulusbriefausgabe. Berlin: de Gruyter, 2012.

__________. “Marcion and the Textual History of Romans: Editorial Activity and Early Editions of the New Testament.” Studia Patristica 64 (2013): 99–113.

Schmithals, Walter. “On the Composition and Earliest Collection of the Major Epistles of Paul.” Trans. John E. Steely. Pages 239–74 in Paul and the Gnostics. Nashville: 1972.

__________. Paulus und die Gnostiker. Untersuchungen zu den kleinen Paulusbriefen. Hamburg-Bergstedt: 1965.

Schneemelcher, Wilhelm. “Paulus in der griechischen Kirche des zweiten Jahrhunderts.” Zeitschrift für Kirchengeschichte 75 (1964): 1–20.

Schwegler, Albert. Das nachapostolische Zeitalter in den Hauptmomenten seiner Entwicklung, 2 vols. Tübingen: Fues., 1846.

Siker, J. S. Disinheriting the Jews. Abraham in Early Christian Controversy. Louisville: 1991.

Strawbridge, J. R. The Pauline Effect. The Use of the Pauline Epistles by Early Christian Writers. Berlin/Boston: 2015.

Trobisch, David. Die Endredaktion des Neuen Testaments: Eine Untersuchung zur Entstehung der christlichen Bibel. Freiburg: 1996.

__________. Die Entstehung der Paulusbriefsammlung: Studien zu den Anfängen christlicher Publizistik. Freiburg, Schweiz: 1989.

__________. On the Origin of Christian Scripture. The Evolution of the New Testament Canon in the Second Century. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2023.

__________. Die Paulusbriefe und die Anfänge der christlichen Publizistik. Gütersloh: 1994.

__________. Paul’s Letter Collection. Tracing the Origins. Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994.

van den Bergh van Eysinga, G. A. “Marcion als Getuige voor een voor-katholiek Christendom.” Godsdienst-Wetenschappelijke Studiën 18 (1955): 5–39.

van Manen, W. C. Die Unechtheit des Römerbriefes. Leipzig: 1906.

__________. “Marcion’s brief van Paulus aan de Galatiërs.” Theologisch Tijdschrift 21 (1887): 382–404, 451–533.

Vermes, Mark, ed. Hegemonius, Acta Archelai = The Acts of Archelaus. Manichaean studies. Turnhout: 2001.

von Soden, Hermann Freiherr. Die Schriften des Neuen Testaments in ihrer ältesten ereichbaren Textgestalt. 2 vols. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1911–1913.

Vinzent, Markus. Christi Thora. Die Entstehung des Neuen Testaments im 2. Jahrhundert. Freiburg i.Br.: 2022.

__________. Christ’s Resurrection in Early Christianity and the Making of the New Testament. Farnham: Ashgate, 2011.

__________. Concordance to the Precanonical and Canonical New Testament. TANZ 70. Edited by Matthias Klinghardt, Günter Röhser, Stefan Schreiber, and Manuel Vogel. Tübingen: Narr Francke Attempto Verlag, 2023.

__________. Marcion and the Dating of the Synoptic Gospels, SPS 2. Leuven: Peeters, 2014.

__________. “Marcion the Jew.” Judaïsme Ancien – Ancient Judaism 1.1 (2013): 159–201.

__________. Offener Anfang. Die Entstehung des Christentums im 2. Jahrhundert. Freiburg im Breisgau: 2019.

__________. Resetting the Origins of Christianity. A New Theory of Sources and Beginnings. Cambridge, New York: 2023.

__________. Writing the History of Early Christianity: From Reception to Retrospection. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2019.

Vinzent, Markus. Von Paulus zu Saulus. Zwei Paulusbriefsammlungen im 2. Jh. Freiburg i.Br.: 2025.

Vogels, H. J. “Der Einfluss Marcions und Tatians auf Text und Kanon des Neuen Testaments.” Pages 278–89 in Synoptische Studien, Alfred Wikenhauser zum siebzigsten Geburtstag. Edited by P. Benoît. Munich: 1953.

von Soden, H. “Der Lateinische Paulustext bei Marcion und Tertullian.” Pages 229–81 in Festgabe für Festgabe für Adolf Jülicher zum 70. Geburtstag, 26. Januar 1927. Tübingen: 1927.

Wilson, S. G. Marcion and the Jews. Antijudaism in Early Christianity, II. Separation and Polemic. Waterloo, Ontario: 1986.

Zahn, Theodor. Geschichte des neutestamentlichen Kanons. Vol. 2, Part 2. Erlangen: Andreas Deichert, 1892.