Gospel of the Ebionites

Euangelium Ebionitarum

Standard abbreviation: Gos. Eb.

Other titles: Gospel of the Hebrews, Gospel of the Twelve

Clavis numbers: ECCA 198; CANT 12

VIAF: 217068686

Category: Agrapha and Fragments

Related literature: Papyrus Oxyrhynchus 840

Compiled by: Michael J. Kok, Morling College Perth Campus ([email protected]).

Citing this resource (using Chicago Manual of Style): Kok, Michael J. “Gospel of the Ebionites.” e-Clavis: Christian Apocrypha. Accessed DAY MONTH YEAR. https://www.nasscal.com/e-clavis-christian-apocrypha/gospel-of-the-ebionites/

Created February 2022. Current as of October 2022.

1. SUMMARY

The “Gospel of the Ebionites” is a title coined by modern scholars for a non-extant text that Epiphanius, the fourth-century bishop of Constantia in Cyprus, extensively interacted with in his chapter on the Jewish Christians known as Ebionites or “Poor Ones” in his heresiological work Panarion (“Medicine Chest”). He (mis?)-identified it as the Gospel “according to the Hebrews” and denigrated it as the Ebionites’ secondary, expurgated edition of Matthew’s Gospel (Pan. 30.3.7; 13.2; 14.3). He was influenced by the prior statements from Irenaeus (cf. Haer. 3.11.7) and Eusebius (Eccl. hist. 3.27.4) respectively that the Ebionites esteemed the Gospel of Matthew or the “Gospel according to the Hebrews.” The “Gospel of the Ebionites” has also been (mis?)-identified with Origen’s “Gospel of the Twelve” (cf. Hom. Luc. 1.2), because, in Epiphanius’s first quotation from it, either one of the twelve apostles or the group collectively use the first-person plural pronoun when reminiscing about Jesus’s election of “us” as a testimony to Israel (Pan. 30.13.2). There are indications that Epiphanius’s copy of the “Gospel of the Ebionites” was written in Greek, for one pericope in it features a Greek pun as ἀκρίς (“locust”) is replaced with ἐγκρίς (“honey-cake”) and μή (“not”) is inserted into a saying of Jesus in another pericope (30.13.4–5; 30.22.4–5). At points it appears to conflate passages from the three Synoptic Gospels, unless its author(s) had access to pre-Synoptic sources, but it includes noncanonical traditions at other points. However, an intertextual relationship between it and John’s Gospel is not demonstrable from the available fragmentary evidence. Some scholars regard it as an example of a Gospel harmony that might pre-date the Diatessaron. At the very least, the terminus a quo and the terminus ad quem for dating the composition of the “Gospel of the Ebionites” can be fixed. If it replicates some of the redactional material of the Synoptic evangelists, then it was composed after the general circulation of the Synoptic Gospels, and it must predate the earliest Patristic references to it.

Seven fragments cited in Epiphanius’s Panarion are typically assigned to the “Gospel of the Ebionites.” In his first fragment (30.13.2–3), Jesus is staying in Simon Peter’s house in Capernaum when he reminds the twelve apostles about how he chose them when he was thirty years old, beginning with his call of the sons of Zebedee at the Sea of Tiberias. Curiously, only eight apostles are named in this excerpt and Matthew is specifically addressed in the second person, with Jesus recapping how Matthew was seated at his toll booth when he was called to follow him. The next three fragments introduce John the Baptizer and narrate Jesus’ baptism. John’s parents are named Zechariah and Elizabeth, his lineage is traced back to the high priest Aaron, and his baptizing activity in the Jordan River is dated to the time of Herod and Caiaphas. This Herod is incorrectly identified as the “king of Judea” (30.13.6; 14.3). After the report that the Pharisees and all the people of Jerusalem came out to be baptized by John, John’s attire and diet are described (30.13.4). He wears a garment of camel’s hair and a leather belt and eats wild honey that tastes like the manna that the Israelites ate in the wilderness, but there is a notable omission of locusts from John’s diet. When Jesus is baptized (30.13.7–8), the heavens are opened, the Holy Spirit literally descends in the form of a dove and enters into Jesus, a great light shines around the area, and a heavenly voice speaks three times to acclaim Jesus as the deity’s son. John reacts by begging the Lord to baptize him, but Jesus refuses to do so and tells him that it is necessary for all things to be fulfilled in this way. In the fifth fragment (30.14.5), Jesus redefines his family around the disciples who obey his heavenly father’s will. In the sixth fragment (30.16.5), Jesus proclaims that he has come to abolish the sacrificial system and that the people will be subject to divine wrath if they continue offering sacrifices. The seventh fragment tweaks a Lukan saying so that it now reads that Jesus does not desire to eat meat with the disciples during the Passover meal (30.22.4).

The reader of Epiphanius’s Panarion may get a partial glimpse into the distinct theological profile of the “Gospel of the Ebionites” from these fragments. It may have been composed with the aim of either harmonizing or supplanting the Synoptic Gospels. It critiques the sacrificial cult that was carried out in the Jerusalem temple before 70 CE and seems to advocate for vegetarianism, which is also paralleled in the pseudo-Clementine literature. Epiphanius was concerned that the absence of Jesus’s genealogy in this gospel, which he judged to be an intentional omission of Matthew’s opening chapter, and its unique retelling of Jesus’ baptism promoted the christological view that Jesus was a mere human who was possessed by a celestial being (30.13.4; 14.3). In the whole chapter, Epiphanius attributes a variety of beliefs, practices, and writings to the Ebionites that previous heresiologists did not bring up when polemicizing against them, so whether or not the gospel that he may have discovered in Cyprus was actually promulgated by Christ-believers self-identifying as Ebionites remains an open question.

Named Historical Figures and Characters: Aaron, Andrew (apostle), Caiaphas,  Elizabeth, Herod Antipas, Holy Spirit, James (son of Zebedee),  Jesus Christ, John (son of Zebedee), John (the Baptist), Judas Iscariot, Matthew (apostle), Peter (apostle), Simon (the Canaanite/Zealot), Thaddaeus (apostle), and  Zechariah (priest).

Geographical Locations: Capernaum, Jerusalem, Jordan River, Sea of Tiberias.

2. RESOURCES

Kirby, Peter. “Gospel of the Ebionites.” Early Christian Writings.

Perseus Project. Panarion (Adversus Haereses) in Greek.

3. BIBLIOGRAPHY

3.1 Manuscripts and Editions

3.1.1 Greek (Epiphanius, Panarion 30.13.2–3, 4, 6, 7–8; 14.3, 5; 16.5; 22.4)

Holl, Karl, ed. Epiphanius 1: Ancoratus und Panarion haer. 1–33. GCS 25. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1915.

———. Die handschriftliche Überlieferung des Epiphanius (Ancoratus und Panarion). TUGAL 36.2.  Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1910.

Holl, Karl, Marc Bergermann, and Christian-Friedrich Collatz, eds. Epiphanius 1 Ancoratus und Panarion haer. 1–33. Second Expanded Edition. GCS n.f. 10.1/2. Berlin: De Gruyter, 2013.

3.2 Modern Translations

3.2.1 Panarion

3.2.1.1 English

Williams, Frank. The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Book I (Sects 1–46). Second Edition. Revised and Expanded. NHMS 63. Leiden: Brill, 2009.

———. The Panarion of Epiphanius of Salamis, Book I (Sects 1–46). NHM 35. Leiden: Brill, 1997.

3.2.2 Excerpts

3.2.2.1 English

Cameron, Ron. The Other Gospels: Non-Canonical Gospel Texts. Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 1982 (pp. 103–106).

Ehrman, Bart D. and Pleše, Zlatko. The Apocryphal Gospels: Texts and Translations. New York: Oxford University Press, 2011 (Greek text with facing English translation, pp. 210–15)

Elliott, J. K. The Apocryphal New Testament: A Collection of Apocryphal Literature in an English Translation. 1993. Rev. ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2005 (pp. 14–16).

Gregory, Andrew F. The Gospel according to the Hebrews and the Gospel of the Ebionites. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2017.

James, Montague Rhodes. The Apocryphal New Testament: Being the Apocryphal Gospels, Acts, Epistles, and Apocalypses. Oxford: Clarendon, 1924; corrected edition, 1953 (pp. 8–10).

3.2.2.2 French

Bertrand, Daniel A. “Évangile des Ébionites.” Pages 447–53 in vol. 1 of Écrits apocryphes chrétiens. Edited by François Bovon and Pierre Geoltrain. Paris: Gallimard, 1997.

3.2.2.3 German

Frey, Jörg. “Die Fragmente des Ebionäerevangeliums.” Pages 607–22 in vol. 1 of Antike christliche Apokryphen in deutscher Übersetzung. Edited by Christoph Markschies and Jens Schröter. 2 vols. AcA I/1-2. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2012.

Klostermann, Erich. Apocrypha. Bd. 2: Evangelien. KIT 8. 3rd ed. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1929 (pp. 9–12).

Lührmann, Dieter. Fragmente apokryph gewordener Evangelien in griechischer und lateinischer Sprache. MThSt 59. Marburg: N. G. Elwert, 2000 (pp. 32–39).

online-bulletMeyer, A. “Ebionitenevangelium (Evangelium der Zwölf).” Pages 42–47 in Handbuch zu Neutestamentlichen apokryphen in deutscher Übersetzung. Edited by Edgar Hennecke. Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr, 1904.

Vielhauer, Philipp. “Judenchristlichen Evangelien.” Pages 75–108 in Neutestamentliche Apokryphen in deutscher Übersetzung, Bd. 1: und Verwandtes. Edited by Edgar Hennecke and Wilhelm Schneemelcher. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1959. English translation: “Jewish-Christian Gospels.” Pages 117–65 in New Testament Apocrypha. Vol. 1: Gospels and Related Writings. Edited by Edgar Hennecke and Wilhelm Schneemelcher. Translated by R. McL. Wilson. 3rd ed. London: Lutterworth Press, 1963.

3.2.2.4 Italian

Erbetta, Mario. Gli apocrifi del Nuovo Testamento. 3 vols. Italy: Marietti, 1975–1981.

Moraldi, Luigi. Apocrifi del Nuovo Testamento. 2 vols. Classici delle religioni, Sezione quarta, La religione cattolica 24. Turin: Unione Tipografico-Editrice Torinese, 1971 (vol. 1, pp. 358–59, 370–72).

3.2.2.5 Spanish

Otero, Aurelio de Santos. Los Evangelios Apócrifos. Madrid: Biblioteca de Autores Christianos, 19561, 1979.3

3.3 General Works

Amidon, Philip R., ed. The Panarion of St. Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis: Selected Passages. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990.

Bauckham, Richard. “The Origin of the Ebionites.” Pages 162–81 in The Image of the Judaeo-Christians in Ancient Jewish and Christian Literature. Edited by Peter J. Tomson and Doris Lambers-Petry. WUNT 158. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003.

Beatrice, Pier Franco. “The ‘Gospel according to the Hebrews’ in the Apostolic Fathers.” NovT 48.2 (2006): 147–95.

Bertrand, Daniel A. “L’Évangile des Ebionites: une harmonie évangelique antérieur au Diatessaron.” NTS 26 (1980): 548–63.

Boismard, M.-É. “Evangile des Ebionites et problème synoptique (Mc 1, 2–6 et par.).” RB 73 (1966): 321–52.

Broadhead, Edwin K. Jewish Ways of Following Jesus: Redrawing the Religious Map of Antiquity. WUNT 266. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010.

Broadhead, Edwin K. The Gospel of Matthew on the Landscape of Antiquity. WUNT 378. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2017.

Coogan, Jeremiah. “The Ways that Parted in the Library: The Gospels according to Matthew and according to the Hebrews in Late Ancient Heresiology.” JEH 73 (2022): 1–18

Danielou, Jean. A History of Early Christian Doctrine. Vol. 1: The Theology of Jewish Christianity. Translated by John A. Baker. London and Philadelphia: Westminster, 1964.

———. Théologie du Judéo-Christianisme. Tournai, Desclée & Cie, 1958.

Dechow, Jon. Dogma and Mysticism in Early Christianity: Epiphanius of Cyprus and the Legacy of Origen. Macon, GA: Mercer University Press, 1988.

Drijvers, Han J. W. and Reinink, Gerrit Jan. “Taufe und Licht: Tatian, Ebionäerevangelium und Thomasakten.” Pages 91–110 in Text and Testimony: Essays on New Testament and Apocryphal Literature in Honour of A. F. J. Klijn. Edited by T. Baarda, A. Hilhorst, G. P. Luttikhuizen, and S. J. van der Woude. Kampen: J. H. Kok, 1988.

Edwards, James R. “The Gospel of the Ebionites and the Gospel of Luke.” NTS 48 (2002): 568–86.

Edwards, James R. The Hebrew Gospel and the Development of the Synoptic Tradition. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2009.

Eldridge, Lawrence Allen. The Gospel Text of Epiphanius of Salamis. Studies and Documents 41. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1969.

Evans, Craig. “The Jewish Christian Gospel Tradition.” Pages 241–77 in Jewish Believers in Jesus: The Early Centuries. Edited by Oskar Skarsaune and Reider Hvalvik. Peabody: Hendrickson, 2007.

Frey, Jörg. “Zur Vielgestaltigkeit judenchristlicher Evangelienüberlieferungen.” Pages 94–137 in Jesus in apokryphen Evangelienüberlieferungen. Edited by Jörg Frey and Jens Schröter. WUNT 254. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010.

Goulder, Michael D. “A Poor Man’s Christology.” NTS 45 (1999): 332–48.

Gregory, Andrew F. “Jewish-Christian Gospel Traditions and the New Testament.” Pages 41–59 in Christian Apocrypha: Receptions of the New Testament in Ancient Christian Apocrypha. Edited by Tobias Nicklas and Jean-Michel Roessli. NTP 26. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2014.

Gregory, Andrew F. “Jewish-Christian Gospels.” ExpT 118.11 (2007): 521–29.

Gregory, Andrew F. “Hindrance or Help: Does the Modern Category of ‘Jewish-Christian Gospel’ Distort Our Understanding of the Texts to Which it Refers?” JSNT 28 (2006): 387–413.

Gregory, Andrew F. “Prior or Posterior? The Gospel of the Ebionites and the Gospel of Luke.” NTS 51 (2005): 344–60.

Gregory, Andrew F. The Reception of Luke and Acts in the Period before Irenaeus: Looking for Luke in the Second Century. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003.

Häkkinen, Sakari. “Ebionites.” Pages 247–75 in A Companion to Second Century Christian “Heretics.SVC 76. Edited by Antti Marjanen and Petri Luomanen. Leiden: Brill, 2005.

Handmann, Rudolf. Das Hebräer-Evangelium: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte und Kritik des hebräischen Matthäus. TU 5.3. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1888.

Henne, Philip. “L’Évangile des Ebionites: une fausse harmonie: une vraie supercherie.” Pages 57–75 in Peregrina curiositas: Eine Reise durch den orbis antiquus: Zu Ehren von Dirk van Damme. Edited by Andreas Kessler, Thomas Ricklin, and Gregor Wurst. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1994.

Hort, F. J. A. Judaistic Christianity. London: Macmillan & Co, 1904.

Howard, G. “The Gospel of the Ebionites.” ANRW 2.25.5 (1988): 4034–53.

Jacobs, Andrew S. Epiphanius of Cyprus: A Cultural Biography of Late Antiquity. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2016.

Jones, F. Stanley. “Ebionäerevangelium/Ebionitenevangelium.” Pages 1042–43 in Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart. Edited by H. D. Betz. Fourth Edition. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992.

Joseph, Simon J. “‘I Have Come to Abolish Sacrifices’ (Epiphaius, Pan. 30.16.5): Re-examining a Jewish Christian Text and Tradition.” NTS 63 (2016): 92–110.

Joseph, Simon J. Jesus and the Temple: The Crucifixion in its Jewish Context. SNTS MS 165. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2016.

Kim, Young. Epiphanius of Cyprus: Imagining an Orthodox World. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2015.

Klauck, Hans Josef. Apocryphal Gospels: An Introduction. Translated by Brian McNeil. London: T&T Clark, 2003.

Klijn, Albertus F. J. Jewish Christian Gospel Tradition. Leiden: Brill, 1992.

———. “Patristic Evidence for Jewish Christian and Aramaic Gospel Tradition.” Pages 169–77 in Text and Interpretation. Edited by Ernes Best and Robert McLachlan. Wilson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1979.

Klijn, Albertus F. J. and Reinink, Gerrit J. Patristic Evidence for Jewish-Christian Sects. NovTSup 36. Leiden: Brill, 1973.

Koch, G. A. “A Critical Investigation of Epiphanius’ Knowledge of the Ebionites: A Translation and Critical Discussion of Panarion 30.” PhD dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1976.

Köhler, Wolf-Dietrich. Die Rezeption des Matthäusevangeliums in der Zeit vor Irenäus. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1987.

Kok, Michael J. Tax Collector to Gospel Writer: Patristic Traditions about the Evangelist Matthew. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2023 (forthcoming).

———. “The Utility of Adoptionism as a Heuristic Category: The Baptism Narrative in the Gospel of the Ebionites as a Test Case.” SJT (forthcoming).

———. “Did Papias of Hierapolis Use the Gospel according to the Hebrews as a Source?” JECS 25.1 (2017): 29–53.

Lagrange, M.-J. “L’Evangile selon les Hebreux.” RB 31 (1922): 161–81, 321–49.

Lichtenberger, Hermann. “Syncretistic Features in Jewish and Jewish-Christian Baptism Movements.” Pages 85-97 in Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways AD 70 to 135. Edited by James Dunn. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 1992.

Lührmann, Dieter. Die apokryph gewordenen Evangelien: Studien zu neuen Texten und zu neuen Fragen. NovT Sup 112. Leiden: Brill, 2004.

Luomanen, Petri. Recovering Jewish-Christian Sects and Gospels. Leiden: Brill, 2012.

———. “Ebionites and Nazarenes.” In Jewish Christianity Reconsidered: Rethinking Ancient Groups and Texts. Minneapolis: Fortress, 2007.

———. “Sacrifices Abolished: The Last Supper in Luke (Codex Bezae) and in the Gospel of the Ebionites.” Pages 186–208 in Lux Humana, Lux Aeterna: Essays on Biblical and Related Themes in Honour of Lars Aejmelaeus. Edited by Antti Mustakallio. Helsinki and Göttingen: Finnish Exegetical Society and Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2005.

Massaux, Édouard. The Influence of the Gospel of Saint Matthew on Christian Literature before St. Irenaeus: The Later Christian Writings. New Gospel Studies 5.2. Translated by Norman J. Belval and Suzanne Hechte. Edited by Arthur J. Bellinzoni. Macon: Mercer University Press, 1990.

Mattila, Sharon. “A Question Too Often Neglected.” NTS 41.2 (1995): 199–217.

Mimouni, Simon Claude. Early Judaeo-Christianity: Historical Essays. Translated by Robyn Fréchet. Leuven: Peeters, 2012.

———. Les Fragments évangéliques judéo-chrétiens apocryphisés: recherches et perspectives. CahRB 66. Paris: Gabalda, 2006.

———. Le Judéo-christianisme ancien: Essais historiques. Paris: Cerf, 1998.

Nautin, Pierre. “Sainte Epiphane de Salamine.” Pages 175–91 in DHGE 15. Paris, 1965.

Neirynck, Frans. “Une nouvelle théorie synoptique (à propos de Mc. 1:2–6).” ETL 44 (1968): 141–53.

Neirynck, Frans. “The Apocryphal Gospels and the Gospel of Mark.” Pages 123–75 in The New Testament in Early Christianity. Edited by J.-M. Sevrin. BETL 86. Leuven: Leuven University Press, 1974.

Nicholson, Edward B. The Gospel according to the Hebrews: Its Fragments Translated and Annotated with a Critical Analysis of the External and Internal Evidence Relating to It. London: Kegan Paul, 1879.

Paget, James Carleton. Jews, Christians and Jewish Christians in Antiquity. WUNT 251. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2010.

Perkins, Pheme. “Jewish Christian Gospels: Primitive Tradition Imagined.” Pages 197–248 in The Apocryphal Gospels: The Apocryphal Gospels within the Context of Early Christian Theology. Edited by Jens Schröter. Leuven: Peeters, 2013.

Petersen, William L. “From Justin to Pepys: The History of a Harmonized Gospel Tradition.” Studia Patristica 30 (1997): 71–96.

———. Tatian’s Diatessaron: Its Creation, Dissemination, Significance, and History in Scholarship. Leiden: Brill, 1994.

———. “Ebionites, Gospel of.” ABD 2:261–62.

Pourkier, Aline. L’héresiologie chez Épiphane de Salamine. Paris: Beauchesne, 1992.

Preuschen, Erwin. Antilegomena: Die Reste der ausserkanonischen Evangelien und urchristlichen Überlieferungen. Giessen: J. Ricker, 1901 (Greek text, pp. 9–11; discussion, pp. 110–12).

Quasten, Johannes. “Epiphanius of Salamis.” Pages 384–96 in Patrology III. Utrecht, 1986.

Reed, Annette Yoshiko. Jewish-Christianity and the History of Judaism: Collected Essays. TSAJ 171. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2018.

Schmidt, P. L. “‘Und es war geschneben auf Hebräisch, Griechisch und Lateinisch’ Hieronymus, das Hebräer-Evangelium und seine mittelalterliche Rezeption.” Filologia Mediolatina 5 (1998): 49–93.

Schmidtke, Alfred. “Zum Hebräerevangelium.” ZNW 35 (1936): 24–44.

———. Neue Fragmente und Untersuchungen zu den judenchristlichen Evangelien: Ein Beitrag zur Literatur und Geschichte der Judenchristen. TU 37.1. Leipzig: J. C. Hinrichs, 1911.

Schneemelcher, Wilhelm. “Epiphanius” in RAC 5 (1962): 909–27.

Schoeps, Hans-Joachim. Jewish Christianity: Factional Disputes in the Early Church. Translated by Douglas A. Hare. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1969.

———. Theologie und Geschichte Des Judenchristentums. Tübingen: Mohr, 1949.

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———. “Das Evangelium der zwölf Apostel: (Ebioniteevangelium).” ZNW 14.1 (1913): 38–64; 13.4 (1912): 338–48; 14.2 (1913): 117–32.

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